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Note: This introductory piece draws upon the collective work of innumerable archaeologists, historians and others who have toiled through more than a century to enhance our view of this great, ancient civilisation. It is important to appreciate that given the evolving nature of the multidisciplinary scholarship in understanding our past which is compounded in this case by the elusive nature of the script, scholars may not agree with each other on all aspects discussed herein including time, space and nomenclature.
The Harappan Civilisation or the Indus Valley Civilisation, now also referred to as the Sindhu-Saraswati civilisation or the Indus-Sarasvati Civilisation, lay forgotten in the annals of history till its rediscovery in the 1920s. Today, it is recognised as one of the largest and most complex ancient civilisations that covered a vast geographical area in South Asia. ‘The area covered by the Harappan culture zone is huge, ranging between 680,000 to 800,000 sq. km. Sites have been found in Afghanistan; in the Punjab, Sindh, Baluchistan, and North-West Frontier Province of Pakistan; in Jammu, Punjab, Haryana, Rajasthan, Gujarat, and western Uttar Pradesh in India. The northernmost site is Manda in Jammu district of Jammu and Kashmir, the southernmost is Malvan in Surat district in southern Gujarat. The western-most site is Sutkagen-dor on the Makran coast of Pakistan, and the easternmost is Alamgirpur in the Saharanpur district of Uttar Pradesh. There is an isolated site at Shortughai in Afghanistan.’ (Singh, 2024)
It is common to discuss the Indus-Saraswati civilisation in three distinct phases from around 3300 BCE to 1700 BCE –
- Early Harappan (3300–2600 BCE),
- Mature Harappan (2600–1900 BCE),
- Late Harappan (1900–1700 BCE).
While Harappa, Mohenjodaro, Dholavira, Rakhigarhi and Ganweriwala are generally accepted as the five largest cities of the Sindhu-Saraswati civilisation, more than 2,000 Harappan sites have been identified by archaeologists over the last century (Shinde, 2016). Some of these iconic centrally-planned settlements that include cities, towns and villages, continue to redefine our idea of our past even though the script of our enigmatic ancestors remains undeciphered.
Harappa – Sahiwal District, Punjab, Pakistan
Situated on the banks of the river Ravi, Harappa was the first forgotten city to be rediscovered in the 1920s. Probably spread over 150 hectares at its peak, it seems to be divided into two parts – the citadel and the lower town and boasts of many characteristic features of the civilisation including burnt brick architecture, streets that were laid out in a grid pattern and an advanced drainage system.
Mohenjo-Daro – Larkana District, Sindh, Pakistan
This UNESCO World Heritage Site situated on the banks of the river Indus spread over 240 hectares and was probably one of the largest cities of the civilisation in its heyday. Rediscovered in 1922, Mohenjo-Daro (also Mohenjodaro) is known for its monumental structures like the ‘Great Bath’ and the ‘Great Granary’ and important antiquities like the bronze statue of the ‘Dancing Girl’, the ‘Pashupati Seal’ and the steatite bust of the ‘Priest King’.
Know More: The ‘Dancing Girl’ of Mohenjodaro
Dholavira – Kachchh District, Gujarat, India
A UNESCO World Heritage Site, Dholavira is a remarkably well-preserved, large, planned and fortified city situated on the island of Khadir. It was once a burgeoning centre of both internal and external trade in its heyday. Significant findings include a sophisticated and ingenious water management system, an inscription made up of ten large-sized signs of the still undeciphered Indus script which evidences civic use of writing and a large stone statue of a deity.
Rakhigarhi – Hisar District, Haryana, India
One of the largest, well-planned metropolises and a remarkable site that was occupied even before the mature Harappan period, it is said to be located almost in the middle of the Saraswati basin. Rakhigarhi is best known for yielding DNA samples which may play a defining role in understanding the genetic origin of the people of the civilisation.
Lothal – Ahmedabad District, Gujarat, India
The only port-town and a major industrial centre situated along the Bhogava river (a tributary of the Sabarmati) in the Gulf of Khambat, this relatively modest size settlement is best known for the remains of bead-making workshops, a copper smithy, shell and ivory workshops and a large hydraulic structure which is arguably the oldest known artificial dockyard in the world.
Kalibangan – Hanumangarh District, Rajasthan, India
Kalibangan is a relatively smaller but important settlement that was occupied even before the mature Harappan phase. It is situated on the dry river bed of the river Ghaggar and has both a citadel and a lower town. It is renowned for its fire altars, the presence of probably the earliest excavated furrowed fields and seals and antiquities which are important for understanding the religious beliefs of our Harappans ancestors.
Ganweriwala – Bahawalpur District, Punjab, Pakistan
A large urban centre on the dry river bed of the Ghaggar-Hakra, it is now a part of the Cholistan desert. Ganweriwala has hardly been excavated but surveys and explorations have yielded classical Harappan antiquities and suggested the presence of characteristic features of Harappan town planning. As per news reports, excavations are expected to be resumed on the site.
Chanhu Daro, Farmana, Banawali, Bhirrana, Surakotada, Nageshwar, Shikarpur and Allahdino are some of the other important sites of the Indus-Saraswati civilisation. Our understanding of Harappan or Sindhu-Saraswati sites continues to evolve as newer sites are identified and studied and old and new material is reinterpreted and revaluated even as the search for the proverbial Rosetta Stone continues.
Select References
- MacIntosh, Jane R. 2008. The Ancient Indus Valley : New Perspectives. Santa Barbara, California: ABC-CLIO.
- Marshall, John.1931. Mohenjo daro and Indus Civilization. Arthur Probsthain.
- Possehl GL. 2002. The Indus Civilization: A Contemporary Perspective. Walnut Creek, California: Altamira Press.
- Shinde, V. 2016. Current Perspectives on the Harappan Civilization. In A Companion to South Asia in the Past (eds G.R. Schug and S.R. Walimbe).
- Singh, Upinder. 2024. A History of Ancient and Early Medieval India: From the Stone Age to the 12th Century. Pearson Education India.
- Harappa.com
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